Activation of GLP-1R induces an increase in intracellular Ca 2+ in 40% of NTS astrocytes, while selective inhibition of astrocyte function in NTS abolishes exendin-4-induced inhibition of food intake (Reiner et al., 2016)
However, the refined sugar in cakes, sweets, pastries and sugary drinks has very different effects
doi: 10.3389/fonc.2026.1834606 Received 19 March 2026 Revised 09 May 2026 Accepted 13 May 2026 Published 28 May 2026 Volume 16 - 2026 Edited by Fahui Liu, Xiamen University, China Reviewed by Armando Patrizio, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, NY, United States Qiming Gong, Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for Nationalities, China Hao Ling, Technical University of Munich, Germany Updates Copyright 2026 Kennedy, Thomas, DArcy, Odia, Kamdar, Pereira, Scarola, Miles, Frank, Taneja, Seetharamu and Mandal
CPD certificate on completion - this confirms online theory completion, not hands-on treatment competency